Following on the publication of the prize-winning history, Mao’s Great Famine, Dr. Dikotter’s history of the first twelve years of the seizure of China by the Communist Party under the leadership of Mao Zedong is the tale of brutality, cruelty, starvation, beatings, executions not of thousands, not of hundreds of thousands, but of millions.  The dream with the ending of WWII for the average Chinese, be they in the cities or as most lived, in the countryside of some sort of return to normality was not to be, and that average Chinese was the one who paid the price for the failure of that dream.

There can be no doubt that the regime of the Nationalist under Generalissimo Chiang Kai-shek and the various warlords was vicious, cruel, and corrupt.  Young men were dragooned, chained together, and marched off to fill the armies of both the government and the warlords.  Taxes were high and corruption existed at every level.  The occupation and war forced on China by the Empire of Japan extended and multiplied the suffering of the Chinese people.  The promises and strict discipline of the Communist forces under Mao created an image of stability and hope for the masses. Once in power however, the Communist regime exhibited every fault and cruelty that each Communist regime, be it the Soviet Union, Cuba, Albania, etc., has practiced since 1917.

Once in power, Mao mirrored the same tactics of the Soviet seizure of power; one by one, the landlords, the richer peasants, the small shop owners, the larger company owners and directors, the intellectuals, the students, and so forth were targeted for separation from the mainstream of society and persecuted.  Who did the persecuting?  Each of the other targeted groups who hoped that by joining the mob punishing the targeted group de jour that they would not be the next target, or if they were, that their willingness to show their zeal in supporting the purges would somehow buy them either a period of grace or a lesser punishment.  They found however, that there would be no mercy coming from Mao and his circle as they moved to create a “new man” in their idealized image.

Famines, floods, plagues and more were forced upon China not by nature, but by the ignorance and grandiose schemes of the ruling elite, all of whom were controlled by Mao.  Although Mao faced an awkward period after Khrushchev’s four hour “secret” speech against Stalin, he managed to maneuver himself and fool his potential rivals into giving him more power so that he could launch the infamous Let a Hundred Flowers Bloom campaign which led once again to a purge and murderous slaughter of those Mao felt could be against him.

A read of this book can be exhausting due to the excellent scholarship and information provided by Dr. Dikotter.  It seems somehow that the history of the CCP has not received the same type of public exposure as that of Hitler’s regime or the more murderous Soviet Union.  This excellent volume is a real contribution to a realistic public airing of the price that will be paid again and again if the lessons of history are ignored.  I know the old argument, “this time it will be different”.  Only a fool mouths those words.  Mao once declared that experience “has taught us to lean to one side”; every time I hear words like those, such as “lean in”, I fear that history has not been learned.

What is the correct number?  Thirty-Two million?  Thirty-Seven million?  Forty million? The correct number of those who died during the period of 1958-1962 as Mao and the Communist Party of China instituted a command economy will never be known.  The exact number will never be known because so many people were dying, primarily of starvation but also because of beatings, executions, and torture that records could not be kept.  The millions did not die because they were some foreign enemies or, as is the case with the Holocaust because of some racial theory; they died because of government incompetence, bureaucratic lying and ignorance of the basic laws of nature.

What exactly is a “command economy”?  The “phrase comes from the German Befehlswirtschaft. It was originally applied to the Nazi economy but was later used to describe the Soviet Union.  Instead of allowing dispersed buyers and sellers to determine their own economic activities according to the laws of supply and demand, a higher authority would issue commands determining the overall direction of the economy following a master plan.  The command principle entailed that all economic decisions were centralized for the greater good, as the state determined what should be produced, how much should be produced, who produced what and where, how resources should be allocated and what prices should be charged for material, goods, and services.  A central plan replaced the market. (Mao’s Great Famine, pp 127).

A “command economy”  then is a top-down system by which the leaders provide objectives and quotas for the amount of grain to be produced, how many tons of steel will be produced, what type and how many shoes, socks, shoelaces, etc. will be produced in what time period, etc.  Operating in a totalitarian system like Communism, each layer below that top simply takes the quota they are given and adds a little more to please the powers that be.  By the time the quotas reach those who produce any given item, the numbers are so large that they are totally unrealistic.  Rather than argue against the numbers (and labeled a right-wing reactionary), the producers “fudge” the numbers to meet the quota.  And an example is the production of rice, a staple of the economy.  If the actual quota is not met, the rice crop is soaked in water to increase the weight as the rice absorbs the water.  Amazing, the quota is met!  The problem with that technique however is that the rice quickly rots and as the price of rice goes up (inflation), the consumers literally have to sell the clothes off their backs to pay for rotting rice.

After conquering most of North America, the United States was filled with success and energy.  The expansion of the economic power of the United States was viewed with awe by the Europeans and dynamic politicians, such as Theodore Roosevelt, Henry Cabot Lodge believed that it was the destiny of the United States to carry on into what is now called the “third world” to bring Christianity, modernity and progress to the inhabitants of those regions.  Our soul was pure (unlike the Europeans who only sought to exploit those foreign lands) and we were sure that we would be welcomed with open arms as saviors.

The destruction of the battleship Maine in the harbor of Havana provided the opportunity to Under Secretary of the Navy Roosevelt whose immediate supervisor left the day to day running of the Navy to Roosevelt.  Seizing the opportunity, Roosevelt and his fellow expansionists put in motion a war with Spain which led to not only Roosevelt’s famous charge in Canada but also the destruction of the outdated Spanish fleet in the Philippines.  With the end of the war, the United States paid Spain between $15 to $20 million dollars and in return we ended up with the Philippines.  Simple, except that the local “intelligencia” within the Philippines had their heart set on their setting up and governing an independent Philippines.

In the end, both parties were fooling themselves; the local Philippine leaders had neither the expertise, financing, military strength or history to create a nation, while the U.S. was not prepared for the “dirty” war that it would find itself caught up in as many of the locals responded to the call of local leaders. 

As time went on, and the U.S. responded with great brutality to the guerillas (using the same techniques they learned from the guerillas), the image of a local primitive people welcoming the heroic Americans began to crumble.  The U.S. was in the end able to win the war but it suffered a blow to its self-image thanks to the stories printed in the press which turned against the war as it went on.

Jones has presented story which shows the U.S. to be an aggressor and seems to gloss over the hundreds of schools, medical facilities, etc. which the U.S. constructed.  He also totally ignores how it was that after such a brutal war, the people of the Philippines came to look upon the U.S. with fondness as we promised and moved towards Philippine independence (which was temporarily held up by World War II).  This is a good basic book in helping one to understand the politics of the war and can be a starting point for future reading if one is so inclined.

Siberia after it was conquered by the Russian Empire, was consider a land of huge wealth, from the priceless furs (a single Ermine pelt was enough to buy a good farm in Russia) to timber and gold, it was also known as the world’s largest prison without a roof.  A land where landless free peasants to go to in order to escape the tyranny of the Tsars and to build a new life, it also served as a great dumping ground for all manner of criminals, both political and non-political (one could be sent to Siberia for life long exile for being a vagrant).  As the population of Russia grew, and the central government could not provide the services for the population, Siberia became a way for lazy local officials to get rid of those they considered problematic.

The journey to Siberia until the advent of the Trans-Siberian railway was most on foot.  Imagine walking, 6 days out of 7, week in, week out, in the Siberian summer and winter for one to two years just to reach your place of exile.  And, your term of punishment did not begin until you completed that journey.  During that journey you were, unless supported by your family who could provide you funds, at the mercy and budget of the prison system which provided a minimum of food and clothing both during the trek and at your place of exile.  The system was so terrible, that some male prisoners would often write their wives telling them to sell everything and come to Siberia where the government was providing each prisoner with land, a cow, horse, house and funds.  In reality, nothing was provided and when the wife arrived with children in hand, their husbands would sell them all into prostitution in order to get enough money to live.

After the term of punishment was completed, as the theory went, the ex-prisoners who had been taught discipline and hard work, would stay in Siberia and begin new farms which would colonize the vast land.  In reality, the prisoners had been so brutalized by the guards, other prisoners and hard labor, that they turned to the only things they had really learned in exile; stealing, forgery, murder, etc.  The large numbers of former prisoners would often wander in bands, laying siege to individual farms and even smaller villages and towns.

Much of the history of Japan lives withing a cloud of myth and legend along with a masterful manipulation of reality. This is especially true since the Meiji restoration whn the emperor was taken as the new central figure in Japan.  Suddenly the Emperor, who had traditionally had no power and was controlled by the Shogun was presented figuratively to the population as divine and the central focus of Japanese life.  Yet, the Emperor himself lived in a closed world or court etiquette and political intrigue.

This excellent history tells the story of who was the power behind the throne and of the vast scale of looting conducted by the Japanese during World War II.  Within Imperial Japan, there was a cadre of powerful families, former samurai war lords who controlled the military and the zaibatsu and thus the economy.  By controlling the military and the economy, they were able to work hand in hand with each other to gather enormous riches and unquestioned power, all while creating a cult around a compliant Emperor.

This is a re-read for me and although it was published in 2010, during the tenure of China’s previous leader, it is a book that is more important than ever. Why? Because Xi Jinping has successfully set himself up, for the first time since the death of Mao, as the equal in thought and leadership to Mao.

As with all leaders of China who serve two five-year terms, the second term, unlike a re-elected President in the United States, is not seen as a lame duck, but is entering a time of greater power. The ability during the first five-year term to place hand chosen personnel in key positions of authority (and limited power) is a tactic harkening back to the earlies days of Communism, and is in fact, practiced in business, the academic world, etc. But unlike the other disciplines, in China key policies can be implemented due to the centralized power in the hands of a leader like Xi Jinping. And, by aligning himself with the image of Mao, after purging numerous centers of power (the leadership of Shanghai, numerous military officers, and financial leaders,), he has consolidated his power and authority at a key time.

There is no doubt that China has become a major regional power (militarily and economically) and a major economic power on a worldwide basis. And, as with other powers, there is a time of ascent which provides that power with a unique ability to re-write its place in the world. China has a world view that is based on its long history, it views of its inherent cultural superiority and its desire to right old wrongs from the days of the colonial empires. To fulfill its destiny, other nations in the Pacific area will need to acknowledge China’s superiority and brought to heed one way of the other.

What is plainly pointed out in this excellent book, is that the driving force behind the rise of China is the Communist Party. The centralized control of the party allows it to direct resources and unity of command to sectors which further advantage the main goals of the Party. At the same time, as with all other totalitarian (and Communist China is a totalitarian regime) examples, there is tremendous competition for primacy in the various sectors. This struggle which leads to strong leaders also means that periodic purges must be held when the local factions become too strong or corrupt. These purges allow the Party to show that it is looking out for the average man and allows wrongs to be put upon not the Party, but errant bureaucrats.

One key feature of the Party is that it is above the government, above industry, above the masses. From this height, the Party extends its reach into every key industry, becoming in fact, owners of the industries. When we see security concerns about telecommunications deal with a major Chinese supplier or wonder if the chips which are produced in China and are in our most advanced fighters will function at capacity, it is because the companies themselves are owned and are extensions of the Chinese Communist Party. The control of “key” industries means that all top management serves at the whim of the Party and thus all good things flow from the Party. The Party is willing to allow much of the consumer segment of the economy function in an open manner (unlike the old Soviet system), but the “key” industries are tightly controlled and direct by the Party.

I would recommend this slim book to anyone who is interested in beginning to understand how a modern totalitarian system can operate. The Party has been able to walk the fine line of providing an increasingly better standard of living for hundreds of millions while maintaining its primary place in society. The question remains however, if as with all totalitarian systems, if they can control their natural inclination to find both internal and external enemies on which to focus to divert popular discontent. The purge of “corrupt” officials is one example of how the Party can focus and direct attention. But the attempt by Xi Jinping to equate himself with Mao points to a much more dangerous and challenging future course.

When Japan decided to go to war with the United States in 1941, it went with the realization that it could not win in a war of attrition. The average Japanese soldier (marine, aviator, etc.) had about four pounds of logistical support behind him (weapons, fuel, munitions, food, shipping, etc.) while the same fighter for the U.S. had over four thousand pounds. Admiral Yamamoto was correct when he said that Japan had awoken a sleeping giant.

The results of this disparity were shown early in the war, when after suffering a naval setback, Japan left over 150,000 troops stranded in New Guinea with the advice to live off the land. Unfortunately, New Guinea was not Western Europe or the Ukraine; instead, it is a hard land with little farmable land, but many high mountains, extreme heat, and humidity, covered in thick jungle with few roads. The result was that only about 10,000 Japanese military personnel survived the campaign. The stranded troops were left, as were so many other Japanese on dozens of isolated islands, to fend for themselves. The result was widespread examples of cannibalism.

James Badley in his book, Fly Boys, details the lives, capture and execution of several American flyers who were shot down over the island of Chichi Jima, a small island some 240 km. north of Iwo Jima. The aviators were all executed by the Japanese either by beheading or bayoneting and sections of their bodies were cut off and served, knowingly to Japanese officers in keeping with a belief that such action would strengthen the fighting spirits of the diners. For several decades after the war, the exact details of those actions were kept secret even though several of the Japanese officers were tried and either executed or imprisoned for their actions. The author, spend years and conducted many interviews with survivors, including Japanese veterans and surviving relatives of the executed Americans to build out the story.

The Thucydides’s Trap is when a rising poser threatens to displace an existing one.  This phenomenon began during the Peloponnesian War which lasted for decades and lead to the victory of a weakened Sparta over the devastated Athens.

Since that time, there have been sixteen cases of the same type since then and in twelve cases the result has been war. Some of the cases are easy to recognize, such as Japan vs. the U.S. in the Pacific, or the rise of Germany vs. the U.K. after 1900, while others are more distant such as the Dutch Republic vs. Great Britain during the mid- to late 17^th century.  The three most recent cases when no war was the result was between the U.K./France vs. Germany for political influence in Europe, the Cold War and surprisingly, the rise of the U.S. and the perceived threat to the U.K. during the early 20^th Century.

The first third of the book is a devastating review of the rise of modern China; it’s huge growth in GDP, the strength of its economy, the expansion of its military, etc. as compared to the sluggish performance of the U.S.  Despite the “pivot” in American foreign policy under President Obama, little of concrete value has been achieved; the North Koreans have more arms, the Chinese have claim more of the sea and built numerous “island” which contrary to their promise, they have militarized, and our “allies” have been forced to bend to Chinese demands through the use of their great economic power in the region. 

Over the decades, I have read many books, transcripts, interviews, done personal interviews, etc. regarding the killing squads and death camps of the Nazi regime. “How” I wondered, “could a cultured nation like Germany march so easily into the brutal murder of millions of individuals who the deemed as sub-human?”  This is certainly not a new question as it has been debated for decades, by those who like Hannah Arendt’s “banality of evil” theory to those who felt that there was some sort of missing component to the German soul. Perhaps there were two types of killers, especially in the SS; the bureaucrats such as Eichman and the officers who stood at the receiving dock at Auschwitz, and those who murdered by executing men, women, and children in the killing pits of Ukraine, Poland, and the rest of Europe. Could they have been indoctrinated by their SS training to believe that they were doing good, freeing the world of vermin to create a better world? But, what about the Police battalions? They were made up of ordinary police officers, men trained up uphold the law, yet they were able to overcome their training and became killers as deadly as the SS Eizengruppen. There were also sadists such as the hardened criminals and perverts of the Kaminski Brigade and the 36^th SS division under the command of Oskar Dirlewanger, but even they were viewed with distain by the regular SS divisions. It was a question that is still debated today by historians, psychologists, and others; was it due to their training, beliefs, or a mass psychosis. Somehow another group of men, who were under strict military control managed to become even worse that the groups I have mentioned; that group is the officers and enlisted men of the Imperial Japanese Army and Navy

From 1671 until the fall of the Raj and the independence of India, many thousands of English women would make a long and often dangerous journey to the Raj to find a husband. The voyage was known as “The Fishing Fleet” and those women who failed in their quest went back to England on a voyage called “The Empties.”  Most of the women were away from home for the first time and as the running of the Raj was a male endeavor, the women who landed at Madras, Calcutta and Bombay were outnumbered by English males who substituted sports for sex while they paid their dues in an attempt to create a successful career. Thrown into a whirlwind of parties, balls, and sightseeing, they were the center of attraction and could receive numerous proposals after speaking to a man for only a few minutes.

The process started while the English presence in India was the domain of the East India Company who would pay for the passage and a stipend for eligible women to make the long voyage. After the Mutiny, this type of arrangement fell off, but given that there was a surplus of eligible women in the U.K. (approximately 750,000 a year), well, what was a girl to do?